Understanding and Applying Instructional Strategies

E1 – Exemplify professionally informed, growth-centered practice.

Given the fact that the foundational goal of teaching is to create an environment that facilitates learning (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2014, p.5) and the fact that every student learns differently (Bruner, n.d.), it is necessary for a master teacher to become experienced using a wide variety of teaching strategies in order to connect with each individual learner in the classroom. Teachers cannot study the full range of instructional strategies, from personal models to direct instruction models, and choose what works best for their own comfort level, developing a single strategy to the point of expertise. Rather, teachers must consider the unique strengths and learning styles of their students and develop proficiency with all of the instructional models available. In cultivating my own abilities with various instructional models, I have found it necessary to identify the core benefit of each model so that I know the best application of the model within the classroom. The discovery model of teaching is best understood as a model to deliver content, while the nondirective teaching model should be used to foster motivation. The mastery learning model provides guidance for creating structured practice that should be used when planning homework. Taken together, these three instructional models increase my understanding of how to create a dynamic and flexible learning environment.

The goal of discovery learning is to train students in ways to think inductively, inquire collaboratively, and use resources for mastery of a domain of knowledge. Humans have a natural ability to compare and analyze what they see around them (Joyce et al., 2014, p.41); discovery learning capitalizes on this aspect of human nature by structuring lessons that give students control over investigative goals. Discovery learning is often thought of as the hands-on, fun activities that reinforce the learning concepts in a lesson. However, discovery learning needs to be the substance of a learning unit for it to be effective, it cannot be an afterthought tacked onto the end of a lesson (R. Scheuerman, personal communication, 2015, January 12). Excellent implementation of discovery learning requires serious effort on the part of the teacher because students conducting investigative projects without proper support can end up with shallow and incomplete understandings regarding their topics (Joyce et al., p.40). The teacher is responsible for explicitly teaching the techniques of inquiry: identifying subjects, constructing categories, generating hypotheses, collecting data, testing theories, and building concepts (Joyce et al.). Teachers are also responsible for focusing the topic of research appropriately, as well as, being prepared for the unexpected results of student inquiry.

In a laboratory science classroom it is fairly straightforward to envision a lesson structured around the inquiry process, however, discovery learning can also be applied in the English and history classrooms that I will be teaching in. In a high school history class, the process of inquiry instruction begins with scaffolding questions along the lines of Blooms Taxonomy of Intellectual Processes (Scheuerman, n.d.; Dean, Hubbell, Pitler, & Stone, 2012). The class can inductively construct concepts about civil rights, for example, by being led in Socratic group inquiry by the teacher, beginning with fact based questions about events in Martin Luther King Jr.’s life and, ultimately, attempting to answer evaluative questions about the use of non-violent protests. Teachers using this method should be cautioned to continuously focus the discussion around topics pertinent to the subject, as the risk with Socratic questioning is that student responses can easily lead the class off-topic. Teachers who have in-depth knowledge of the topic being studied will find this easier to accomplish, but even if the teacher does not qualify as an expert, the teacher can learn along with the students. Students copy what they see, so this is an excellent opportunity to model learning for the students.

Teachers should use inquiry instructional techniques that focus on group cooperation in order to graduate students capable of positively contributing to the collaborative workplace. Students today are comfortable conducting their social lives to a great extent online, and the workplace for twenty-first century adults also relies heavily on collaboration, either face-to-face or at a distance. To help students make the transition from using digital technology only in their social lives to productive use in professional careers, teachers should create inquiry projects that rely incorporate digital collaboration. For example, in an English classroom, digital group inquiry could consist of a teacher providing groups of three students the name of a poet and allowing students to investigate the poet’s style by writing a modern interpretation of one of the poet’s poems on Google docs together. Through group inquiry students learn from each other and gain self-esteem (Dean et al., 2012). Dewey (2013) also argues that a community environment in school is critical to the development of moral behavior, and the ability to interact positively with others will lead to professional advancement outside of the protective confines of school. The application of collaborative inquiry in today’s classroom will be received with enthusiasm by today’s tech-savvy students if it incorporates an appropriate use of digital technology.

While the instructional model of inquiry learning is used mainly for content delivery, the nondirective model of instruction should be considered for use in creating intrinsic motivation. Carl Rogers helped to develop the instructional model of nondirective teaching, a system for teacher-student interaction based on counseling methods and founded on the idea that students are capable of analyzing their own performances and developing action plans for intellectual and behavioral growth (Joyce et al., 2014, p.289). Rogers (n.d.) found that “positive human relations are related to positive human behaviors [emphasis in original]” (para. 2). Essentially, if a teacher treats students with human dignity, respecting students’ abilities to govern their actions, then students respond by improving their performances and living up to the high expectations generated by themselves and the teacher. Nondirective teaching consists of informal interviews in which the teacher asks questions to help students analyze areas of potential growth. It is critical that the student is the one to discover the area of needed growth and therefore the teacher must refrain from controlling the interview with leading questions (Joyce et al., 2014). For example, if the teacher has identified that a student is not completing homework because of poor organizational skills, the teacher should not ask the pointed question of, “How do you think your organization of homework assignments affects how often you complete assignments on time?” Instead, the teacher should ask nondirective questions, such as, “tell me how you feel when you are not able to complete assignments?” Again, the goal is for the student to self-identify hindrances affecting growth and then create a personal plan for change. If the student creates the improvement plan, not the teacher, then it is an intrinsically motivating experience. Not only does intrinsic motivation to change study habits or behavior patterns make classroom life more productive and enjoyable for teachers and students alike, intrinsic motivation is essential to success in life outside of school. Teachers must reflect on whether or not the instructional strategies they implement help their students become lifelong learners who can adapt to changing circumstances. Nondirective teaching is one way to ensure the attainment of this goal.

Because nondirective questioning asks students to be vulnerable and honest in their reflections, it requires the teacher to create an emotionally safe environment. Teachers nurture this type of environment by showing genuine interest in the student as a person, and carefully validating student responses to the nondirective questions (Joyce et al, 2014, p.289). Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2014) recommend that the teacher accepts without judgment any thoughts and feelings that the students communicate by mirroring the students’ emotions (p.289). By looking in this “mirror of emotions” students are able to clarify causes of inappropriate behavior or opportunities for academic growth. Students feel no sense of judgment because the “mirror” is simply presenting facts, as articulated by the students themselves.

Nondirective teaching is also related to positive self-esteem and effective feedback in the classroom. Self-esteem is linked to a belief in self-efficacy. Nondirective teaching, from start to finish, is a production of the students’ efforts. Students create their own action plans for development, they are intrinsically motivated to follow-through on the action plans, and subsequent sessions of nondirective questioning reveal to them that the progress they have made toward their goals is directly linked to their own efforts. It is a uniquely self-validating cycle. Teachers can also use the action plans that students create to guide their feedback. Studies show that positive feedback is most effective when it contingent on a specific behavior exhibited by the student (Brophy, 1981). How much more effective, then, would feedback be when it is contingent on behavior that the student is actively focused on improving? Consider the levels of meaning in the following three examples of feedback: 1) The teacher who writes “good job” on the top of a homework assignment is providing positive feedback, but does not necessarily improve student self-esteem because there is no link between the positive feedback and specific effort on the part of the student; 2) The teacher who writes “good job constructing topic sentences” improves student self-esteem because the feedback is contingent on the demonstration of a specific skill; 3) The teacher who writes – knowing that the student’s action plan based on a nondirective interview is to turn assignments in on time – “thank you for turning the assignment in on time” not only provides behavior contingent feedback, but also links it to the action plan of the student. This third example is the deepest level of feedback that a teacher can provide for a student, and it can only happen if the teacher is using the nondirective instruction strategy.

The instructional model that frames my positive outlook for the success of each student and the model that has the most effect on how I structure practice for the skills I am teaching is mastery learning. Mastery learning is based on a non-traditional definition of aptitude. Aptitude is commonly correlated with achievement; high aptitude will lead to high achievement (Joyce et al, 2014, p.331). However, people who use the mastery learning method believe that aptitude is the ease with which a student understands material, which is measured in the amount of time it takes to master core skills (Joyce et al, p.331). Mastery learning, therefore, is fundamentally optimistic because it corresponds to a belief that all students, irrespective of their aptitude, can master a set of skills if they are provided enough practice opportunities. Since the assumption is that all students can learn, the focus shifts from assessing student aptitude to assessing which forms of practice enhance each individual’s ability to learn.

The mastery learning instructional technique requires the teacher to break learning components into discreet skills with detailed corresponding objectives and sequentially introduce new skills to the students only after they have mastered the previous skill (Joyce et al., 2014). Joyce et al. (2014) suggest that twenty-first century technology should be used to implement this instructional method because computers represent the most thorough way to customize a lesson to the individual learning needs of students. For example, it is difficult for a teacher to ascertain the exact level of proficiency each student in a class of thirty has obtained in recognizing the difference between passive and active voice. However, if students are working through a module on this topic on a computer, the computer program allows students with higher aptitudes to progress quickly through the module, and gives students with lower aptitudes additional time to practice with the concepts before moving on to more integrated concepts. Teachers need to be wary of relying too heavily on individual-centered computer modules, however, because the individualized environment does not stimulate growth by learning from and teaching peers (Richardson, 2012), and lacks the community focus that leads to positive social behavior (Dewey, 2013).

Researchers (Joyce et al., 2014; Dean et al., 2012) have found that repeated, structured practice produces positive effects on student learning when it is combined with formative feedback. Structured practice should begin in the classroom, where the teacher has an opportunity to address questions and misunderstandings relating to the material on both an individual and group level. Teachers should assign homework that corresponds to specific learning objectives practiced in class. Mastery learning depends on the teacher’s timely use of formative feedback for both in-class and homework practice assignments (Dean et al., 2012). Formative feedback, rather than consisting of a grade, is specifically related to the steps the student needs to take for growth toward proficiency (Dean et al., p.108). Formative feedback could consist of verbal comments as the teacher moves around the classroom monitoring in-class activities, written comments that lead a student to develop a deepening competence with the subject, or peer feedback on performance. The principles of mastery learning lead to higher achievement for all students no matter what the students’ perceived initial abilities are.

As I hope to increase my competence with the various instructional models available to me, I need to remember that learning consists of change and discomfort (Joyce et al., 2014, p.365). I may not feel comfortable using the inquiry learning style at this stage in my career, but I understand that discovery learning is an excellent method for delivering content to my students. Because I know the core benefit of the inquiry instruction model, I know how best to use it when structuring lesson outlines and objectives. Inquiry learning facilitates content obtainment because it allows students to work collaboratively on investigative projects of their own design. Nondirective teaching is best used as a method for cultivating intrinsic motivation. As I begin to use this method in the classroom, I must remember to reflect back the students’ emotions to create a non-judgmental environment. I also need to proactively use the action plans that students develop during nondirective interviews when I am providing feedback. If I reference the progress the students have made towards their goals, I will reinforce the motivating influence of the action plan and help the students reach higher and higher levels of achievement. Finally, mastery learning is an instructional strategy that provides a framework of optimism because it is founded on the ideal that all students can master a subject given enough time and practice opportunities. Breaking the learning objectives into sequential steps and providing formative feedback assists every student on their journey towards content mastery. At the end of everyday in the classroom, I hope to reflect on the instructional strategies I implemented and be able to say that I used the right strategies for the right purposes.

References

Brophy, J. (1981) Teacher praise: a functional analysis. Review of educational research, 51(1), 5-32. doi: 72.233.151.70

Edwards, O. (n.d.) An interview with Howard Gardner, father of Multiple Intelligence [Excerpt]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-7-reading-gardner.pdf

Dean, C. B., Hubbell, E. R., Pitler, H., & Stone, B. (2012). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement (2nd Ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Dewey, J. (2013) My pedagogic creed. In, Collected writings on education: My pedagogic creed & the school and society & the child and the curriculum & moral principles in education & interest and effort in education & democracy and education (pp. 4-19) [Nookbook version]. Retrieved from: http://www.barnesandnoble.com (Original work published 1897)

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Richardson, W. (2012) Why School?: How education must change when learning and information are everywhere. TED Conferences. Kindle Edition.

Rogers, C. (n.d.). Teacher Effects Research on Student Self-Concept [excerpt]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-8-reading-rogers.pdf

Scheuerman, R. (n.d.) EDU 6526 survey of instructional strategies
session 3: concept attainment and Bloom’s Taxonomy [Lecture Outline]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-3-outline-concepts.pdf

EDU 6526 Meta-Reflection: The Promise of Inquiry and Non-Directive Teaching Strategies

P2 – Practice differentiated instruction. Teachers need to be able to expertly use a widely varying set of instructional strategies in order to meet the individual needs of their students. Because of EDU 6526 Survey of Instructional Strategies, I have refined my vision of how and when to incorporate inquiry learning into my instructional repertoire, in addition to learning about personal models of instruction for the first time.

Direct instruction is the default instructional strategy for many teachers, including myself, because it has dominated the landscape of American education for much of the last few decades. While direct instruction, if presented effectively with advanced organizers (Ausubel, 1968), can be very engaging for students, special caution needs to be used to ensure that teachers do not rely too heavily on this format to the detriment of students who are not verbal-linguistic learners (Edwards, n.d.).

(Joyce et al., 2014, p.45)

On the opposite end of the instructional spectrum is inquiry learning where students use inductive activities to explore topics and come to conclusions. Although I have long been familiar with the concept of deductive versus inductive reasoning and the excitement that discovery learning elicits, I had never fully thought through the consequences of using inquiry learning simply as a supplementary activity instead of the substance of the lesson plan. In order for inductive learning to be effective, it needs to be an integral part of the lesson, not an afterthought or just a way to instill a little fun into a stagnant lesson(R. Scheuerman, personal communication, 2015, January 12). Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2014) offer additional insight into creating compelling inquiry activities: Notably, the teacher is responsible for narrowing the domain of the inquiry to an appropriate topic, but should allow students to design their own inquiry within that topic, and the inquiry should be collaborative, and results should be shared. Introducing Web 2.0 technologies into the curriculum can easily facilitate the collaborative aspects of inquiry learning and allows students to publish their findings for real audiences.

One category of instructional strategies that I was unaware of until reading Joyce et al. (2014) was the personal model for instruction. Essentially, personal models of instruction see students as people first, people who are capable of directing their own learning path when given appropriate opportunities and self-esteem support. The non-directive approach to teaching is perhaps the most influential to my future practices in the classroom because it changes how I plan to instill intrinsic motivation in my students. Non-directive teaching relies on interviews between the teacher and student, or students, during which the teacher asks non-leading questions meant to help students identify their roadblocks to successful learning skills. Once students have self-identified areas they are struggling in, they are self-motivated to make an action plan to improve performance. Non-directive teaching fosters an emotionally safe environment where students are free to express themselves in conversation with the teacher because their thoughts and feelings are validated and respected by the teacher. This instructional approach is improved when the physical classroom environment has a safe and nurturing appearance, as well.

(Joyce et al., 2014, p.291)

Going forward, I need to formalize my practice of non-directive teaching. I already have a tendency ask students questions to elicit responses, but I do not consciously think about what my goal is when I am doing this, nor do I pay attention to whether my questions are leading or not. I need to practice intentional reflection after engaging with students so that I can grow in my abilities to promote student self-initiatives for improving academic behaviors.  I am excited about this avenue for growth as a teacher.

References

Ausubel, D. P. (1968) Instructional Materials. In Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Retrieved From: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-4-reading-ausubel1.pdf

Edwards, O. (n.d.) An Interview with Howard Gardner, Father of Multiple Intelligence [excerpt]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-7-reading-gardner.pdf

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Creating an Environment that Promotes Self-Esteem

H3 – Honor the classroom/school community as a milieu for learning.

While reading Richardson (2012) and Mitra (2012), I have been given a glimpse of a future where computers are the central figures in the classroom, and I have, therefore, recently found myself wondering what the teacher’s role is in the digital classroom, when computers, not teachers, represent the best possibility for differentiated instruction. To answer this question, I have reflected on the role the teacher has in creating a social environment that produces strong self-esteem in students and encourages active participation in both exploiting and enriching the environment (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2014, p. 306). Rogers (n.d.) and Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2014) present research that documents the effect teachers have on the

(Joyce et al., 2014, p.305)

social climate of the classroom. The research is abundantly clear: a teacher demonstrating high proficiency with interpersonal skills facilitates higher learning achievements for students (Rogers, n.d.). Students learn better when they have a positive social dynamic created by an active teacher who models effective social skills. It is the imitation phenomena at work; just as babies will stick out their tongues in imitation of an adult within an hour of birth, so will students imitate the behavior of the teacher in front of them (Medina, 2014, p.247). This ranges from minute social behaviors, such as polite speech, to character building habits of actively seeking out opportunities to learn from and educate others.

To sum it all up, the research evidence clearly indicates that when students’ feelings are responded to, when they are regarded as worthwhile human beings capable of self-direction, and when their teacher relates to them in a person-to-person manner, good things happen. To the Consortium researchers, it seems that children who are in person-centered classrooms learn some important things about themselves, which make it possible for them to grow more healthily and achieve more effectively. (Rogers, n.d., para. 10)

I believe self-esteem is created by actions of self and others. Self-esteem can be viewed as an object on an incline. The incline represents the environment the student is placed in and the shape of the object is the student’s response to environmental stimuli. The best scenario is when the student is an active participant in an active classroom. This creates a snowball effect where the two factors positively impact one another, like a round ball rolling down an incline. The two aspects are mutually beneficial. The reverse would be when a student with low self-esteem who is non-receptive to outside stimuli is in an adverse environment. This is similar to trying to move a square object up a hill.

As a teacher, I do not have control over the “shape” of my students’ self-esteem when they enter my class. What I can control is the slope of the incline, that is, the social environment. According to Joyce et al. the best way for me to do this is by actively seeking out professional development and bringing new ideas into the classroom (2014, p. 305-306). Additionally, I need to create an environment that demonstrates respect for the worth of each individual. Developing a discovery curriculum is the easiest way to do this because it affirms the students’ potential by allowing them to direct their own learning. Teacher’s add value to the digital classroom by creating an environment that foster’s positive self-esteem which, in turn, increases student success.

References

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Medina, J. (2014) Brain Rules: 12 priniciples for surviving and thriving at work, home, and school. Seattle, WA: Pear Press.

Mitra, S. (2012). Beyond the hole in the wall: Discover the power of self-organized learning. TED books. Kindle Edition.

Richardson, W. (2012) Why School?: How education must change when learning and information are everywhere. TED Conferences. Kindle Edition.

Rogers, C. (n.d.). Teacher Effects Research on Student Self-Concept [excerpt]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-8-reading-rogers.pdf

Mirrors Prompt Action

P2 – Practice Differentiated Instruction.

A primary concern I have as an educator is how to achieve a form of intrinsic motivation that does not rely on external rewards, such as verbal praise and grades, within each of my students. Intrinsic motivation helps students to create life long habits of responsibility for personal growth and learning. Using non-directive interviews between teacher and student is one way to achieve differentiated, intrinsic motivation for each student. Through this process, the teacher creates a non-judgmental environment and allows the student to express feelings related to a particular issue, such as not completing homework assignments (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2014, p. 289). The teacher facilitates the interview with questions, but does not structure the outline of the discussion. The student examines the cause of the emotional barriers to success and creates an action plan without the prompting of the teacher. Because the teacher is not giving the student a task and the student generates the action plan, it is likely to create a meaningful and long lasting change.

(Joyce et al., 2014, P. 295)

(Hein, 2010)

A key element to the success of non-directive teaching is when the teacher reflects back the emotions of the student, thereby validating the student’s feelings and at the same time giving the student the opportunity to evaluate those feelings (Joyce et al., 2014, p.290). I like to think of the teacher as a mirror that reflects back the emotions of the student. When I look in the mirror and see a smudge on my face, I do not walk away without wiping it off. If I never took the time to look in the mirror, it is possible I would not even know the smudge was there. Using non-directive interviews is akin to putting a mirror in front of each student and asking them to evaluate and change academic or behavioral performance. Perhaps I will hang a mirror on my classroom wall to remind myself of the value of reflecting back my students’ thoughts and feelings by using non-directive teaching.

Although non-directive teaching requires the teacher to invest time, interviewing each student individually and repeatedly, the resulting intrinsic student motivation is worth the effort. If the teacher perceives a global issue, then a group discussion would be appropriate. For example, perhaps the students seem disengaged from the subject being taught. The teacher could facilitate a discussion on why students feel apathetic toward the content; this discussion would result in a plan of action whereby the students take responsibility for their learning and investigate topics that are of interest to them. The teacher releases control and the students take on the responsibility of learning.

 References

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Hein, J. (2010) [image]. Retrieved on February 21, 2015 from: http://www.saatchigallery.com/artists/jeppe_hein.htm

I Am: The Fullest Expression of Morality

H5 – Honor student potential for roles in the greater society.

Because one universally acknowledged goal of education is to graduate students of character who are able to contribute positively to the moral society of our nation, I was intrigued by the idea of assigning a grade to moral behavior in class. We evaluate knowledge and understanding, why not evaluate character? Kirk (1987) argues that America needs a renewed virtue that arises from habit, but not from express teaching, or graded assignments. The reigning idea is that you cannot formalize moral education. It is an illative process.

I agree that the way students form their habits of proper behavior is by emulating the examples they have before them. To best aid this process, I need to start with myself. As a teacher, I am, myself, the fullest expression of the values I want to instill in my students (R. Scheuerman, personal communication, February 9, 2015). I need to look first at my own behavior, because that is what will be reflected in my students. One way that I can exemplify positive social interaction – one of the key moral values I hope all of my students exhibit – is through behavior-specific feedback. Studies show that teacher’s positive feedback is most effective when it is behavior-contingent (Brophy, 1981). For example, I am more likely to see a long lasting positive improvement in behavior if I say to a student, “good job listening to the presenter” during group presentations, rather than simply saying, “good job.” If I model providing behavior-specific feedback, I can hope to see my students verbally appreciate the behaviors of their peers.

An illative way to encourage moral behavior online is by hanging this poster on the classroom wall (Technology Rocks, 2012).

Kirk (1987) wrote that the best exemplars of behavior should be found in the family and he bemoaned the fact the family unit has disappeared in light of the intrusion of technology; students spend more time observing the behavior of the latest music star than the example set by their parents and grandparents. Kirk pushed for a renewal of family values, however, I simply do not see this as practical. We cannot look backward and hope to achieve a sense of familial identity; we must accept the integration of the outside world into our families. It exists. The question is how to move forward and find acceptable exemplars of behavior within the new, global, technology-infused society we live in. I do not necessarily have an answer to this question.  What I do know, is that I have an opportunity, maybe for only 45 minutes out of the day, to be a living example for each of my students. I need to make the most of it.

References

Brophy, J. (1981) Teacher praise: a functional analysis. Review of educational research, 51(1), 5-32. doi: 72.233.151.70

Kirk, R. (1987) Can Virtue Be Taught? Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-6-reading-kirk1.pdf

Technology Rocks (2012). Before you Facebook, TXT, Tweet, or Blog…THINK [Blog post]. Retrieved from: http://www.technologyrocksseriously.com/2012/01/before-you-facebook-txt-tweet-or-blog.html#.VOBELCn4tFI

Encouraging Collaboration by Restructuring the Classroom Environment

H3 – Honor the classroom/school community as a milieu for learning.

According to Dewey (2013), schools should be an extension of the home environment that foster collaboration to help students learn how to participate in the social life of the community. To achieve the best possible outcomes for social interaction, it is important that students feel comfortable, both emotionally and physically, in their learning environment. The typical high school classroom consists of rows of individual desks; the basic design of the classroom promotes separation, not collaboration. The place where most people are at ease socially tends to be at home with their families where they interact by balancing the needs of every member of the family community for the common good. In order to promote this sense of comfort and cooperation in the classroom, the physical environment should reflect that of the home.

I was inspired by Bunyi (n.d.) to stand in the middle of my living room and take a photo of each quadrant of the room. I analyzed the photos compiling a list of the most common objects. I found that lamps, plants, low tables, and frames were the most common objects found in my home. A secondary list included comfy seating options, pillows, and curtains. None of these household design features are found in the typical classroom, however I believe that I can easily add them to my own classroom.

Lighting design engineers (http://www.lighting.philips.com) are attempting to do innovative things with classroom lighting and research is showing that lighting has a significant effect on student learning outcomes (Research links, n.d.). While we are waiting for school budgets to include outfitting classrooms with the latest in lighting technology, I can at least supplement my classroom with various lamps to approximate the feel of a living room.

SchoolVision lighting (http://www.lighting.philips.com)

To create comfortable collaboration environments, seating options should be offered other than the traditional individual desk. Large tables are ideal for communicating during group activities. Also, yoga mats that can be rolled out on the floor with throw pillows allow students to relax in the same ways they might when working or reading at home (Cox, n.d.).

Framed artwork, lamp, and plants in classroom (Bunyi, n.d.)

Every single item that is hung on my walls at home – apart from one large world map – is inside a frame. Why would I not do the same for the wall art in my classroom? It is great to hang up a student’s work of art or project, but how much more special would it be to put it inside of a simple frame? This creates a sense of accomplishment for the student while at the same time helping the classroom to reflect a home-like atmosphere.

By making a few changes to the physical classroom environment so it more closely approximates the environment found in the typical home, students will begin to see the classroom as an extension of the larger community. When students are comfortable in their learning environment it fosters better collaboration and gives them practice working together toward a common goal.

References

Bunyi, A. (n.d.) 6 classroom design tips [Blog post]. Retrieved from: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/lesson-plan/6-classroom-design-tips#top

Cox, J. (n.d.) How to personalize your classroom to make it feel like home [Blog post]. Retrieved from: http://www.teachhub.com/how-personalize-your-classroom-make-it-feel-home

Dewey, J. (2013) My pedagogic creed. In, Collected writings on education: My pedagogic creed & the school and society & the child and the curriculum & moral principles in education & interest and effort in education & democracy and education (pp. 4-19) [Nookbook version]. Retrieved from: http://www.barnesandnoble.com (Original work published 1897)

Research links student concentration to classroom lighting [Article] (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.ies.org/LDA/E-newsletter/2011/August/newswire/110808-SV.cfm

Movie Trailers for Your Lesson: Using Advance Organizers

P1 – Practice intentional inquiry and planning for instruction.

In current discussions regarding the benefits of discovery models of teaching versus traditional presentational models, the question that is usually asked is which model better enhances the student’s retention of knowledge? History teachers are often accused of relying too heavily on presentational lesson plans and it is almost inevitable that they are judged by their lectures. But what if we can improve our lectures and engage students in the learning process while choosing the presentational model? Ausubel (1968) argues that the use of advance organizers stimulates students’ background knowledge and increases interest in the new material being presented. Advance organizers also create a framework to which students can connect new facts learned during lectures. When connections are made to previous knowledge, deeper learning occurs; students retain the new information and can use it in novel situations.

David Ausubel (retrieved from: http://www.theoryfundamentals.com/ausubel.htm)

Advance organizers act like movie trailers for the presentational style lesson. A movie trailer presents in a concise way the general theme of the movie: drama, western, or romantic comedy. You will know if the upcoming film has actors that you have seen before, which allows you to connect it to other films you remember. The trailer also presents a general flow of events that you will expect to see, but leaves out just enough information to make sure you investigate further and watch the film. When used properly, advance organizers perform the same function in the classroom. They are presented first, they include the general concepts that will be covered in the lesson, they are presented using vocabulary the students are familiar with, and they stimulate interest in the new material. When was the last time you watched a movie without seeing a trailer that first piqued your interest? Similarly, why should we expect our students to be excited for a lesson when they have no expectations regarding what they will be learning and have no frame of reference to connect facts to previously learned material?

Click for a mental break and watch some movie trailers!

There are several categories of advance organizers for teachers to choose from. Dean, Hubbell, Pitler and Stone (2012) present four categories – expository, narrative, skimming, and graphic – while Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2014), using Ausubel as their guide, only distinguish between expository and comparative. Ausubel (2012) argues that the advance organizer, to be effective, needs to be at a higher level of abstraction than the material that will be learned. For example, for a lesson on the presidential election of 1860, the advance organizer could be a conceptual comparison of current national issues to national issues of the mid-1800s. Students can connect facts learned during the lesson on the presidential election of 1860 to the conceptual framework of national issues. Names and institutions such as Lincoln, Douglas, and the Northern and Southern Democratic Parties are linked in the students’ minds during the lesson to the broader national issues of states’ rights and slavery that were presented during the advance organizer.

I intuitively understand the need for advance organizers because I use them all the time: I skimmed the chapters for this week’s readings before I read them, and I watch movie trailers before I go to the theater. I want to know what I will be learning about in advance of the actual learning. As a teacher, I can dramatically increase the amount of information students are able to retain, as well as their interest level, by simply making advance organizers a part of the lesson plans I prepare for introducing new material.

References

Ausubel, D. P. (1968) Instructional Materials. In Educational psychology: A cognitive view. Retrieved From: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-4-reading-ausubel1.pdf

Dean, C. B., Hubbell, E. R., Pitler, H., & Stone, B. (2012). Classroom instruction that works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement (2^nd Ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9^th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Teaching Concepts: Large and Small

H5 – Honor student potential for roles in the greater society.

Effective teachers use their role to arrange the learning environment in such a way that the students discover knowledge through exploration (Bruner, 1966). One way to do this is through the use of concept attainment: asking students to compare and contrast various attributes of a given set of examples, come to conclusions, and hypothesize a definition for the concept. The teacher then provides the correct name for the concept and provides more examples so the students can prove that their understanding of the concept is correct.

A master teacher will intertwine the use of large interdisciplinary concepts, whose attainment enables students to become effective critical thinkers both in and out of school, with more discipline-specific concepts. Scheuerman (2015) presents a list of overarching concepts that drive how we study and evaluate the world around us, each of which can be used in any classroom, from the social sciences to art. These concepts, which range from cause and effect to equilibrium and order, enable students to view data through specific lenses of analysis. Teachers should explicitly teach their students to use these concepts when students are discovering smaller concepts that do not necessarily translate from one subject to another. This establishes frameworks for how to analyze data that extend beyond the classroom into all areas of life.

Scheuerman, R. (2015). EDU 6526 Survey of Instructional Strategies
Session 3: Concept Attainment and Bloom’s Taxonomy [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-3-outline-concepts.pdf

For example, when teaching students in an English class the structure of a paragraph – a concept that does not have a notable effect on the student’s success in music class – the teacher can use the concept discovery method outlined by Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2014, pp. 124-147), as well as, the conceptual themes presented by Scheuerman (2015). Combining these two levels of concepts, the English teacher presents several examples of short paragraphs and prompts the students to analyze them using the broad concepts of similarities and differences, and systems and patterns. The teacher asks the students to look for similarities and differences with questions such as, “What are the similarities between the first sentence of each paragraph?” “What are the differences?” To explore systems and patterns, the teacher might ask, “How are the sentences in the paragraphs arranged?” “Is there a consistent pattern to the organization in all the examples?” The students will volunteer observations about the various parts of a paragraph and create a definition for the first sentence, which the teacher can formalize by providing the name of the concept: a topic sentence.  Attaining an understanding of what a topic sentence is does not translate to next period’s music class; however, the larger concepts that the students used in the exercise (similarities and differences, and systems and patterns) do have a significant role in how they understand the music they study.

In attaining specific content knowledge through an analysis that uses interdisciplinary concepts, the students learn skills that allow them to function at a higher level in all areas of life. As an English teacher, with a passion for writing, I want all my students to understand the organization of a paragraph. However, even more than that, I want them to leave my classroom with critical thinking skills. The combination of both levels of concept attainment, taught interdependently, allows me to achieve this goal.

References

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Some elements of discovery. In L. S. Shulman & E. R. Keislar (Eds.), Learning by discovery. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-3-reading-bruner.pdf

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9^th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com

Scheuerman, R. (2015). EDU 6526 Survey of Instructional Strategies
Session 3: Concept Attainment and Bloom’s Taxonomy [Lecture notes]. Retrieved from: https://mountainlightschool.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/sis-session-3-outline-concepts.pdf

Benefits of the Question-based Instructional Strategy

P1 – Practice intentional inquiry and planning for instruction.

Teaching requires a dynamic interplay of a variety of instructional strategies, one of which – that I foresee myself using in teaching history and English – is using questions to guide students to generated knowledge. Questioning requires more effort from the teacher than a traditional lecture, but it leads to positive gains in assessment of student progress and student interest in the subject matter.

Although expert teachers might appear to be guiding a discussion with questions generated on the spot, using a questioning instructional strategy requires the teacher to carefully plan ahead. Joyce, Weil, and Calhoun (2014, p.42) note that teachers must focus the content of questions to help students develop a conceptual idea. One way to do this is for the teacher to separate questions into three categories based on Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy of learning (R. Scheuerman, personal communication, January 12, 2015). Teachers can use information-based questions to check for factual understanding then progress to questions that probe students’ comprehension of concepts; a third level of questioning leads students to develop evaluative statements regarding the topic. Most teachers would benefit from writing out a list of questions categorized in this manner to facilitate the discussion. This three-tier questioning strategy is a way to scaffold the lesson to gradually lead students to the discovery of new evaluative knowledge. Questioning is also a risky instructional strategy because of the wide variety of responses possible from the students. Teachers must be experts on the topic in order to appropriately respond to students and keep the discussion on the key concept.

When using questioning during a lesson, teachers are able to informally assess student knowledge. This is a great tool for teachers if they reflect after the questioning session on what were the strengths and weaknesses in comprehension across the spectrum of student abilities. This reflection can lead to better follow-up during the succeeding class sessions where information that needs more in-depth study can be focused on.

Example of student generated responses to the question “what do you see” (Joyce et al., 2014, p.110).

Finally, questioning is also a great strategy for improving student interest in the lesson. The Picture Word Inductive Model described by Joyce et al. is an excellent example (p. 119). The teacher provides a photograph related to the unit the class will be studying and asks the students what they see. This form of questioning is fact-based, and appropriate for the beginning of the unit. The teacher uses student responses as the basis for the remaining sessions in the unit. Because students are actively involved in creating the substance of the unit they have a greater interest in participating in activities related to it.

When students speak they are creating. Translating an idea into words. Questioning allows students to discover and create knowledge and is therefore an excellent teaching strategy.

References

Joyce, B., Weil, M., and Calhoun, E. (2014). Models of teaching (9^th ed.) [Yuzu Reader version]. Retrieved from: http://webreader.yuzu.com